Social Factors
Political Factors
The Peace Preservation Law helped the government suppress criticism, since liberals and communists were either forced to resign (e.g. prof.Morito Tatsuo) or jailed. Following the 1928 amendment allowing the death penalty, the government gained power to suppress dissent using the Peace Preservation Law. This fear led to many to proclaim their allegiance to the ultra-nationalist ideals of the military. By 1930 the government could act unopposed, since anyone that disagreed would be considered potential enemies. Following challenges to the Emperor Organ theory, the government published the Kokutai no Hongi (Fundamentals of Our National Polity), which stated the divinity of the emperor and that he had power over all. This crushed all dissent throughout the war years.
In 1923, Kita Ikki's ultra-nationalist writings lead to younger members of the military to begin assassinating all that opposed the direct rule of the Emperor (such as corrupt politicians and businessmen). This was known as the "Showa Restoration". The March Incident of 1931 was one example of the Showa Restoration, where the Cherry Blossom Society attempted a coup. They planned to commit acts of violence against government members, and install War Minister General Ugaki Kazushige as head of a military government. However Ugaki withdrew his support and the plot fell apart. Another failed coup occured in October, which intimidated the civilian government into condoning the Army's moves in Manchuria. In May 1932, a group of army cadets and naval officers broke into Prime Minister Inukai's residence, planning to assassinate him. Other prominent members of government were similarly targetred. This further showed the weakness of the civilian government, as Inukai was replaced by Saito Makoto (a retired Admiral). The Showa Restoration also led to a growing split in the military. Two factions began to form, the Tosei (Control) faction and the Kodo (Imperial Way) faction. The Tose faction believed that the Kodo method of violently restore direct imperial rule would only result in obstructing the technological and economical mobilization for the war against China. The Kodo faction believed in direct violent action to destroy corruption around the throne. They believed the primary threat to Japan would be the Soviet Union. In 1936 members of the Kodo faction surrounded the Imperial Palace, assassinating government leaders and declaring martial law. It would only be after the Emperor disavowed their actions would they disperse. The army used the 26 February Incident to purge Kodo fanatics from its ranks. The military also resintated the regulation that the War Minister must be on active service. This gave the military even more power over Japan's affairs.
In 1923, Kita Ikki's ultra-nationalist writings lead to younger members of the military to begin assassinating all that opposed the direct rule of the Emperor (such as corrupt politicians and businessmen). This was known as the "Showa Restoration". The March Incident of 1931 was one example of the Showa Restoration, where the Cherry Blossom Society attempted a coup. They planned to commit acts of violence against government members, and install War Minister General Ugaki Kazushige as head of a military government. However Ugaki withdrew his support and the plot fell apart. Another failed coup occured in October, which intimidated the civilian government into condoning the Army's moves in Manchuria. In May 1932, a group of army cadets and naval officers broke into Prime Minister Inukai's residence, planning to assassinate him. Other prominent members of government were similarly targetred. This further showed the weakness of the civilian government, as Inukai was replaced by Saito Makoto (a retired Admiral). The Showa Restoration also led to a growing split in the military. Two factions began to form, the Tosei (Control) faction and the Kodo (Imperial Way) faction. The Tose faction believed that the Kodo method of violently restore direct imperial rule would only result in obstructing the technological and economical mobilization for the war against China. The Kodo faction believed in direct violent action to destroy corruption around the throne. They believed the primary threat to Japan would be the Soviet Union. In 1936 members of the Kodo faction surrounded the Imperial Palace, assassinating government leaders and declaring martial law. It would only be after the Emperor disavowed their actions would they disperse. The army used the 26 February Incident to purge Kodo fanatics from its ranks. The military also resintated the regulation that the War Minister must be on active service. This gave the military even more power over Japan's affairs.
Economic Factors
During the late 1920s and early 1930s Japan had enjoyed economic growth. Their role in WWI also helped this, thanks to Japan's role in providing war material for the allies and the opening of new markets to trade with. Japan was also beginning to transition from agriculture and light industry to heavy industry. This has been called the "most difficult and precarious phase in the course of a country's modernization" by Kosaka. However, the Kanto earthquake in 1923 hurt the Japanese economy, since recovery efforts placed a large strain on the Japanese economy. This led to Japan to return to the Gold Standard in 1929, which was an attempt to stabilize the yen. However this led to Japan being affected even more by the Great Depression in 1930. The slow in silk exports compounded on the damage, putting Japan in a precarious situation. Since Japan's urban areas were relatively better off compared to the rural areas, this caused resentment from those that immigrated from the countryside. Right wing organizations capitalized on this, emphasizing the self-serving behavior of the industrialists and politicians. This contrasted with the strength and organization of the military, which made it seem like the true spirit of Japan. This can be illustrated in the idea "soldiers were the arms and legs of the empire", which highlights the importance of the military in Japanese society.
Ideological Factors
Ultra-Nationalism grew in Japan as a result of a feeling of isolation by the West. Events such as the Exclusion Act and having to fight for their interests at the League of Nations made many Japanese believe that they had to defend themselves against hostile Western powers. The popularity of the military led to many to either join the military or idealize Japan's invasion of China. The economic failure in the 1930 also helped in catalysing the growth of ultra-nationalism in Japan, since it led to disillusionment towards the civilian government. Some historians (such as Kenneth Pyle) argue that the growth of ultra-nationalism in Japan began much earlier, pointing to groups such as the Kokuryukai (Black Dragon Society 1901). Another factor in the growth of ultra-nationalism could be the contrast between the promotion of traditional Japanese values on the backdrop of rapid modernization. In 1890, the Emperor issued the Imperial Rescript on Education, which outlined a set of Confusian principles for conduct. By the 1930 two generations of Imperial Education had led to radical forms of nationalism.
Significant Events
Political
- Peace Preservation Law used to suppress dissent against the government
- Kokutai no Hongi affirms supreme power of the Emperor in how the government operates
- 1923: Showa Restoration begins, spurred on by Kita Ikki's ultra-nationalist writings
- Showa Restoration splits military between Kodo (Imperial Way) and Tosei (control) factions
- 1936: 26 February Incident incited by Kodo radicals
- Following the Emperor disavowing the Kodo Faction, the Tosei Faction rose to power and purged members of the Kodo Faction from the military
- Significance: The Showa Restoration showed the weakness of the civilian government and ended with the Tosei Faction effectively controlling Japan by insisting that the War Minister had to be on active service. This effectively ended democracy in Japan. The Peace Preservation Law leads to many communists, liberals, and opposition to the government being arrested.
- 1923: Kanto Earthquake
- 1929: Yen returns to the gold standard
- 1930: Great Depression
- Significance: Compounded in a loss of trust in the civilian government. Boosted the popularity of the military, which paved the way for a takeover.
- Ultra-Nationalism mainly grew from the feeling of Western Isolationism (US: Exclution Act, LoN: Treaty of Versailles)
- Pyle: Argues that ultra-nationalism began much earlier, as evidenced by the Black Dragon Society 1901
- Popularity of the Military
- Imperial Rescript on Education
- Economic Failure
- Significance: The growth of ultra-nationalism did little to affect government policies, but it gave the military more popular support. It also allowed the government to do more without public backlash, since the people were led to believe in the superiority of Japanese spirit